Open Journalism For All - News, Documentaries And Information Services

In January 2008, Harvard Business Review’s editors Thomas A. Stewart and Gardiner Morse sat down with investment banker / businessman Bruce Wasserstein, who recently received Harvard Law School’s 2007 Great Negotiator Award.

The interview basically talked about how Bruce Wasserstein works as a deal maker. They discuss about his strategy as well as his perspectives in deal making and how he puts emphasis on creating value in his dealings and counseling duties for chief executive officers (CEOs).

The HBR interview is a useful tool not only for people who want to explore the mind of a successful businessman and deal maker, but also for those who want to learn a thing or two while trying to follow in Bruce Wasserstein’s footsteps. For instance, Bruce Wasserstein reveals that his approach to the art of deal making is similar to what he does when problem solving. He examines each deal and weighs whether it is sensible enough to warrant attention or interest before proceeding to consider his next step.

Bruce Wasserstein’s success, as indicated in the interview, is clearly a result of absolute brainpower and ingenuity coupled with his distinctive ideas and persistence. Clearly, these values are the main reasons why Bruce Wasserstein has been a major mover in the field of negotiations, mergers and acquisitions for more than 30 years.

Read the HBR interview with Bruce Wasserstein.

Environmental Pollution

1. Damage to The Ozone Layer Causes Radiation Pollution

The hole in the ozone layer above the North Pole is becoming larger, allowing large volumes of ultraviolet radiation to fall directly on the Earth’s surface, causing destruction and harm to humanity, and resulting in skin cancer and other bodily ailments. At the same time, it reduces the rate at which green plants photosynthesise, thereby reducing oxygen content in the atmosphere.

This has extreme negative effects on the Earth. Health organisations all over the world are continuously researching on ways of reducing such harmful effects on humanity. In a direct attempt to address the issue, many are actively looking into the effects of radiation, and taking measures to rectify the situation, such as through modifying the coolant compartments in automobiles and refrigerators, and setting up new guidelines for certain products.

2.Acid Rain

The emission of pollutants and toxic gases into the atmosphere has resulted in chemical reactions, which cause acid rain. Acid rain damages the environment by, for example, corroding the metals we use in car doors and buildings. It also harms human health; the first sign of prolonged exposure to acid rain is the onset of skin ailments.

3.Agro-Chemicals

Many of the agricultural products, which we consume regularly, are sprayed with chemical pesticides that are harmful to humans. Some of these products may reach the consumer before an interval of time that is necessary for them to be safe and fit for human consumption. Consumers may unwittingly purchase these quick-to-the-market agricultural products, still tainted with chemicals, and expose their family to the harmful effects of these pesticides. Prolonged accumulation of these chemicals can cause irreversible damage to our health.

4. The Contamination of Western Medicine

Frequently, we see a new phenomenon. Whether is it among a family member or in the office, as soon as someone catches a cold or cough, it will inevitably spread quickly to someone else. Besides the highly contagious nature of the virus, the body’s low resistance to viruses also plays a part. The abusive use of antibiotics has resulted in viruses’ resistance to medicines as well as deterioration of the human body’s immunity system. The rates of contagious diseases are thus on the rise.

Air Pollution

Rapid worldwide industrialisation has increased the daily emission of toxic waste and gases. Vehicle exhaust fumes and dust are increasingly trapped in our environment and this is exacerbated in densely populated cities where smog blankets and traps polluted air.

Tobacoo Smoke（Public Places）

The harmful effects of nicotine found in tobacco smoke are well documented. Passive smokers who are exposed to tobacco smoke in public places can also suffer from the same ill effects as smokers themselves - lung diseases, damages to our brain cells, heart problems, strokes, poor blood circulation and high blood pressure are some of the more well known illnesses associated with tobacco smoke.

Indoor Air Pollution

On average, we spend 80% of our time indoors. The high cost of living and pressure for space have resulted in smaller living areas, with a higher tendency of congestion and poorer ventilation. Coupled with an enclosed indoor environment, these living conditions often come with pollutants such as cigarette smoke, dust, fungi and spores, droppings from dust mites, chemicals from photocopying machines and construction materials (glue, paint) and smoke from cooking. Sustained exposure to these elements can cause cancer, respiratory ailments such as asthma, hypersensitive rhinitis, hypersensitive dermatitis, and deterioration of the immune system.

1. Cooking Smoke (Kitchen and Restaurant)

Research reveals that cooking a meal is equivalent to smoking six cigarettes. Although the proportion of women in China who smoke is small, the mortality rate of these women who suffer from pulmonary diseases is high. Epidemiologists suggest that there is a strong correlationship between this and the inhalation of smoke and oily fumes while cooking.

2. Recycling of Accumulated Carbon Dioxide (Office and Bedroom)

Prolonged inhalation of carbon dioxide in an enclosed or badly ventilated office can result in fatigue and lack of concentration among office workers. Fatigue felt after a long journey in the car is also similarly caused by poor circulation of air where there is insufficient oxygen to replace the carbon dioxide.

3. Bacteria and Fungus Found Living In Air Conditioners (Office Buildings, Hospitals, Homes, etc)

It is essential to clean the filters of all air-conditioning systems regularly, be it centralised or single units. Filth in the units will lead to the growth of micro-organisms which will flow into the room through the inlet duct when the air-conditioner is switched on. Many cases of asthma today is closely related to allergy to these micro-organisms.

4. Air Pollution by Chenical Substances (Home, Office)

The scents and odours of household products like insecticides, detergents, deodorisers, mosquito coils, hair gels, hair sprays, glue, correction fluid, calcium carbonate, etc, are sometimes unhealthy. They may even be cancer-causing.

The Change in Lifestyle

1. Changes In Diet

In the modern diet, chemical additives occupy nearly 65% of all daily food content. In addition, fashionable trends in fast food resulted in people taking in excessive animal fats and food with high cholesterol contents. Such changes in eating habits resulted in people consuming too much unhealthy products and thus health is affected.

2. Lack of Exercise

Oxygen is important to the body. With exercise, oxygen will help to strengthen cardiac and lung functions. Exercise will also help to burn excess fats and reduces intravascular LDL ( low density lipoprotein cholesterol) to prevent arteriosclerosis. Exercising will benefit the health but when done excessively, it will result in hypoxia and overproduction of free radicals causing physiological imbalance.

3. Mental Stress

Changes in the present living environment: reductions in natural greens making way for the metropolis jungle, inter-personal relationships becoming increasingly superficial. As life’s pressures build up, so does stress in the workplace. The world of feelings and EQ succumb to imbalance. Many modern people suffer from the sickness of melancholy and this constitutes another concern of living in the modern society.

The Origin of Virus and Allergy

Man’s endless devastation to Mother Nature has resulted in severe environmental pollutions, and nature is reacting. The constant mutation of bacteria and virus variations, coupled with the bustle of world trade, has lent favor to virus broadcast. With developments in aviation and frequent travel, viruses are being disseminated at lightning speed across the globe. Strange illness abound, the pace of medical research cannot keep up with the unexpected speed of viral mutation. Plagues continue to endanger lives of humans and livestock. Life on earth is seriously threatened.

In addition, while most allergies do not endanger life, they can cause a person to live unhealthily or become unhappy. An example is dust allergy. Asia has the world’s highest incidences of asthma, 90% of such cases arises due to dust allergy. The common symptoms of dust allergy include: habitual early morning sneezes, running nose, blocked nose, cough, rhinitis, asthma, allergic conjunctivitis and uncommon dermatitis.

The above-mentioned issues constitute factors that threaten the survival of humanity, cause deterioration of health and increase mental stress, leading to unhealthy and unhappy lives.

Nur Syahid, a Natural Aromatherapist, specializes in Bio-Tech Aromatherapy including oxygen therapy, ozone therapy, health aromatherapy. Comments, Share and more info E-mail to : Healthybelair@yahoo.com

Did you know it’s actually possible to lose fat without a calorie deficit?

It’s all about timing. The correct timing refers to certain situations when our body is more inclined to burn fat rather than carbohydrates or protein, such as when glycogen levels (muscles sugar reserves) are low and the body is forced to use greater amounts of fat for fuel. Timing can be applied to other aspects involved in the fat loss process, such as nutrition and meal frequency as well as exercising. Correct timing is the key to fat loss and there are a number of ways we can use timing to our advantage. The best exercise for each body type at the right time, a pyramid style of calories ingested during a day, the correct macro nutrient ratio for each meal and meal frequency are more examples of timing which can boost fat loss without the necessity of reducing calorie intake. With the right timing you can tap into stored fat much quicker.

What about all the advice to consume fewer calories?

I am not saying that all the normal advice we hear is incorrect. It is sound advice but a calorie deficit is still needed to lose WEIGHT. Weight loss and fat loss are two separate entities, and its fat loss dieters really need in order to change body composition for the best. When concentrating on merely losing weight can cause false results, the weight loss will be made up of various components; water, muscle, glycogen as well as some body fat. How much fat is lost through a calorie deficit alone will depend on many factors; percentage of calorie deficit, exercise frequency, body type, nutritional intake, macronutrient ratios, etc. These are just a few things to consider, but the fact is most dieters tend to lose far too much muscle when cutting calories. Muscle wastage means a loss of more water weight than stored body fat, and this is often the reason why many dieters develop a reduced metabolism within a month or so. A
slow metabolism stops further weight loss and is partly why you may gain back the weight after a diet.

Fat Loss Timing
As an example of the importance of timing think about the situation if doing a weights session and a cardio session in the same workout, which exercise is done first?

I believe you should always do weights first, why?
Weight training is classed as an anaerobic exercise so it burns a larger percentage of carbohydrates for fuel. If you did cardio first you will deplete muscle glycogen stores simply because there is plenty at the beginning of a workout and the body prefers this energy source. Now due to low glycogen stores the weights session will now be below the intensity of what is required to build or tone muscle, and without more muscle you won’t increase the metabolism.

By doing weights first you have enough carbohydrate stores (glycogen) to train well and boost the metabolism, also a good weights session will deplete the glycogen levels which sets the optimum TIME to burn more fat through the cardio session. This is where timing is really important, and in this case you would have a net loss of stored body fat without a calorie deficit.

Another example of timing is eating your highest calorie meal after a workout. This is because our metabolism is slightly elevated for up to 2 hours after training, all the enzymes which work to absorb and store nutrients are extremely active, therefore all energy present in the meal will more than likely be used up for recovery and less chance any fat will be stored on the hips. This is also the best time to indulge in “bad” foods if you have trouble with any cravings. Obviously you just make sure not to overdo it as you don’t want to undo all efforts of the workout.

Timing is the Key to accelerated Fat Loss

The right timing for exercise, meals and carbohydrate intake is a real advantage for losing body fat. In fact many bodybuilders use timing to help strip most fat from the physique a few months before a show. The only disadvantage is timing alone may take a considerable amount of time for those who need to lose a large amount of body fat. However many overweight people can use both a slight calorie deficit AND timing to help speed up the process of losing a large amount of stored body fat, it just takes a little knowledge and effort to implement certain principles. It’s too difficult to simply state how to implement timing tricks because each person will have a different set of circumstances. You need the knowledge in order to adapt the principles for your own body type, eating habits, exercise ability, fitness and lifestyle.

Losing fat weight over just weight loss is the most important aspect of permanent weight control, there are numerous ways we can trick our body into burning a greater amount of body fat, but some techniques need to be learned and tested. Losing weight is relatively easy but losing stored body fat is a science which requires the use of important principles adapted to individual requirements.

Wayne Mcgregor has written hundreds of articles on ways to lose weight. His website provides tons of free weight loss information and help.

http://www.weightlossforall.com

Are you looking to feel more happiness in your life and enjoy just being alive? Are you thinking of the song; Be Happy Now? If so have you considered getting a furry companion to live with you? A puppy, dog or kitten or cat to bring happiness to your humble home; if so it is easy to go and get a pet from the pound and boy will they be happy to be loved and well cared for instead of being trapped in a cage in a smelly environment.

You know having a pet will make you happier and the pet will be happier too. Do you know why dating advisors tell men to buy a pet and go walk in the park to meet women? Because women like pets because they make them happy and women also know that any man with a pet is obviously a nice guy too. Why, because he is so very happy you see? Simple stuff really.

Why do pets make us so happy? What type of pet are you thinking of getting? A dog perhaps, how about a cat? How about a parrot; just think you can have a happy companion, who is happy just like you. Happiness can start with pet ownership, but you must decide what type of pet you want.

Just because you picked a dog or cat, does not mean you are finished, because there are so many types of dogs and cats to choose from. So, you need to make up your mind and then you are well on your way to becoming a happier you. Consider all this in 2006.

“Lance Winslow” - Online Think Tank forum board. If you have innovative thoughts and unique perspectives, come think with Lance; http://www.WorldThinkTank.net/wttbbs/

When looking at MLM and network marketing opportunities, don’t consider one just on your initial reaction. Take time to all the elements involved and see how the company operates. Purchasing into a MLM opportunity is like buying a house. You have to live with your choice a long time and it you don’t like it, you might lose money when you move. Also, if you choose an MLM company that has been in business a short time, you might make a bad choice. The MLM industry is full of opportunities, so make your choice wisely.

The best choices in MLM and network marketing opportunities are the major players in the MLM field. Companies such as Mary Kay and Amway offer excellent products, superior training programs, and outstanding customer service and support. If this will be your first business, working with their expertise will help you develop good business practices for yourself. Also, their commission packages are good and you can count on receiving a check from them.

When comparing options, look for MLM and network marketing opportunities that use your talents and interests. Find a business that appeals to your individual tastes. Investing in a business that you don’t enjoy doesn’t make sense. You’ll hate the work and the business will become more of a chore rather than an opportunity. Fit your knowledge and background to the opportunity to measure if the company is right for you. Your life experiences can add greatly to a company’s offerings to create a perfect blend.

Finally, when considering MLM and network marketing opportunities, consult a friend that has been involved with the company you are considering. Chances are they have some knowledge on the particular MLM opportunity, whether as a distributor or a customer. Also, when you start an MLM business, find someone in the organization to serve as a mentor for you. They can show you the ropes and ease your transition in the world of MLM business.

==========================================

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Having a warm & cozy spot to snuggle up is important as
well as renewing. Creating intimacy in your home, or at
least in one area of your home, requires a little
imagination and some gut feelings. How does your family
room or sunroom make you feel when you walk into it? Are
the colors inviting? Is there comfortable seating? Winter
is the best time to paint and spruce up your rooms because
you can take advantage of all the white sales.

If you like to investigate with a “hands on” approach, hop
in the car and go to your favorite design stores (listed
under Interior Decorators & Designers). Look at the colors
they’re using as well as the kinds of furniture and fabrics.
Observe the accessories like throws, candles and mirrors.
You can get ideas from all kinds of stores like Pier 1,
department stores and small boutiques. Picture in your
mind how that still life would look in your home, take notes
and try to understand how it made you feel. If this is a
cozy spot in which you’d like to plop down right now and
read a long novel, you’ve hit gold.

Do the same investigating on the web by scoping out
stores, designers, designing sites, decorating websites and
how-to forums. Begin to learn why you like or dislike certain
elements, colors, etc. You’re working toward a focus on a
comfortable spot in your home.

Here are some easy steps:

Invest in a warm color for your walls, inexpensive
draperies on simple pole rods with classy finials and a
chenille throw (and maybe even a “bear” rug!). Move your
main chair close to the couch, add some lovely greenery
items, candles and statuary to the coffee table and you’re
set! Be sure to have a side table available to place your
book and cup of tea on while you enjoy your warm
surroundings.

You have permission to publish this article electronically or in print, free of charge, as long as the resource box is included. A courtesy copy of your publication would be appreciated, Lisa@HGPgal.com.

Lisa is a WAHM and decorating consultant in the central Illinois area. Get deco ideas and home décor at Decorating with HGPgal. Submit an article, sign up for our monthly newsletter & contest and join in the discussions on the DecoForum!
http://www.HGPgal.com

Being an Internet Article Author is far and away the best way to get noticed quickly by the Big 3 Search Engines. Anyone can Create Enumerated List Articles. Here are 7 Steps explaining how to create an Enumerated List Article.

An Enumerated List Type Article is an Article that consists of Numbered Steps. Here are some possible titles for an Enumerated List Article

• 7 Ways to use Search Engines.
• 5 Simple Steps to loose Weight.
• 17 Power Search Commands
  

Step 1 - Pick a Topic

Decide what you want to write your Enumerated list Article about. Here are some Ideas you can use to find a Topic

• What are you good at?
• What do people seek your ideas, Opinion or Advice on?
• What is Your Hobby?
• What is Your Passion?
• What do you do at Your Job?
• What are your Favorite Sports?
• Health and Fitness
• Self Improvement
• Politics
• Current Events
• How-To’s
  

Step 2 - Create Your Enumerated List

Write down your List so if your Topic were 7 Steps to a perfect Squash Plant your List might look like this.

1. Find a Spot with good sun
2. Dig a Hole
3. Put in the Seeds
4. Fill in the hole
5. Stake the Plant
6. Water the Plant
7. Feed the Plant

Step 3 - Write a Lead In Paragraph

This is actually optional but a good 3 or 4 sentence lead in paragraph catches the readers attention and compels them to read your article.

Step 4 - Write a Description of each List Item

Write something about each of your Enumerated list items. You can write as little as a sentence or as much as three or more paragraphs for each list item. It is ok to have lot’s of detail for some list items and very little detail for other list items.

Step 5 - Write a Closing Paragraph

This is optional. Write a short 2 or 3 sentence paragraph summing up your steps.

Step 6 - Don’t forget your resource box

At a bare minimum your resource box should contain

• A short description about you
• Your Name
• Your Company name (if you have one)
• A Link to your web page
• Contact Information Optional (Phone and E-mail)

Step 7 - Edit and Proof Read.

Use a Spell checker on your Article. Edit your article and make some changes, If you don’t make at least 1 or 2 changes read it a 2nd and 3rd time and be sure. It is very rare that you won’t make a few changes when you re-read your article.

Now Let your article sit for few hours and repeat this step again.

Using this article as a Guide you should be able to write your first enumerated List Article. Go ahead grab a Pad and Paper and pick a topic and Create a List. Now keep going with the remaining steps.

About The Author:
Mike Makler has been Marketing Online Since 2001 When he Built
an Organization of over 100,000 Members

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Copyright © 2005-2006 Mike Makler the Coolest Guy in the Universe

Most traders use a FOREX broker to handle their transactions. What exactly are brokers? Strictly speaking, brokers are individuals or companies that buy and sell orders according the investor’s decisions. Brokers earn money by charging a commission or a fee for their services.

FOREX brokers need to be associated with a large financial institution such as a bank in order to provide the funds necessary for margin trading. In the United States a broker should be registered as a Futures Commission Merchant (FCM) with the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) as protection against fraud and abusive trade practices.

Before trading FOREX you need to set up an account with a FOREX broker. You may feel overwhelmed by the number of brokers who offer their services online. Deciding on a broker requires a little bit of research on your part, but the time spent will give you insight into the services that are available and fees charged by various brokers.

The best advertising is word-of-mouth advertising, and this is just as valid in FOREX trading as it is for any other type of business. Talk to friends and associates to see who they are dealing with and find if they have any complaints or difficulties in dealing with a particular broker.

You could try selecting a few online brokers and contact their Internet help desks to see how quickly they respond to enquiries and whether or not they answer questions to your satisfaction. Keep in mind, however, that pre-sales service may be better than after sales service. This can be true for any online business, not just FOREX brokers.

Customer satisfaction and safety are just part of the story. You want to find a broker who executes orders quickly and with minimum slippage. All online brokers should offer automatic execution and have clear policies regarding slippage. They should be able to tell you how much slippage can be expected in both normal and fast-moving markets.

Next you want to know the fees involved. What is the spread? Is spread fixed or variable according to the type of account? Are mini accounts subject to wider spreads? Are there any other charges? Smaller spreads mean more profit for the trader, but there may be a trade-off between spread and service. Look at the overall picture before deciding to go with a particular broker.

Margin accounts are the lifeblood of FOREX trading, so be sure you understand the broker’s margin terms before setting up an account. You need to know the margin requirements and how margin is calculated. Does margin change according to the currency traded? Is it the same every day of the week? Some brokers may offer different margins for mini and standard accounts.

Trading software is very important for the online FOREX trader. Get a feel for the options that are available by trying out a demo account at a few online brokers. Above all, you are looking for reliability and the ability to perform well in fast-moving markets. The software should offer automatic trading and may have special features such as trailing stops and trading from the chart. Some features may only be available at an extra cost, so be sure you understand what your trading needs are and how much the broker charges to provide them.

Other information to find out about includes the broker’s policy regarding minimum account balances, interest payments on account balances, which currencies can be traded and whether or not non-standard sized lots can be traded. You should also find out whether clients’ funds are insured and the extent of that insurance.

New to FOREX trading? Don’t panic! Abc-of-forex.com gives you all the basic information you need to get started in currency trading. For more info visit this FOREX trading website.

Isn’t it interesting how we always seem to take for granted some of the most significant technological breakthroughs that have helped propel our society into the 21st century? Internet access is one such technology that has changed the way we work, live, and play. The Internet has become such a necessity in most of our daily lives that we hardly even give its significance a second thought. We use the Internet for personal communication, our finances, entertainment, dating, news, research, and much more. However, it’s amazing when asked, “Who created the Internet?” the usual answer is a simple “I don’t know”. The creation of the Internet was a pretty large technical undertaking that took many years to perfect and would require a great deal of your time if explained in complete detail. However, this editorial cuts to the chase and explains its development in a clear, concise, non-technical manner.

In the late 1960s, the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by ARPA of the U.S. Department of Defense created a network of computers that were all linked together. This network was referred to as ARPANET and was specifically designed to be redundant. The reason for the network redundancy ensured that if any one section of the network became damaged in a large scale military conflict, the remaining computers on the network would still be able to communicate with one another. Back then, the military understood the potential of computer networks and they also understood that in any military conflict reliable battlefield communication is paramount to a successful outcome. This is what led the military to research a way to reliably network computers for such a scenario.

By the mid 1980s, the National Science Foundation created NSFNET. This used the ARPANET technology that was originally developed for military application to allow universities and researchers to connect to each other. By 1987, NSFNET was no longer capable of handling the amount of information that was being transferred, so the National Science Foundation made improvements to the network in order to increase information transfer speeds. This high speed network technology was the key advancement that made the future of Internet access practical. As a result, this improved high-speed network laid the groundwork for the application of commercial Internet access.

In the 1980s, the majority of individuals with Internet access were mainly comprised of scientists and researchers. By the early 1990s, many companies, now more commonly referred to as Internet service providers (ISP’s) started offering Internet access to average home users. This was the key transition point that allowed the average individual with a simple modem and computer configuration to acquire Internet access.

The World Wide Web (www) was created in the early 1990s by a European Laboratory. Their goal was to develop a way for researchers to work more closely together and to make the sharing of their research easily accessible amongst other researchers. As a result, the first publicly accessible Web site was created in 1993.

By the mid 1990s, well over 30 million people had acquired Internet access. These vast numbers of Internet surfers enticed large corporations to invest their marketing dollars into Web design and promotion in order to sell or provide information about their products and or services. As a result, today there are millions of companies vying for the attention of anyone with Internet access. Moreover, it has become a standard requirement for just about every business model to acquire an Internet presence.

In conclusion, the birth of Internet access can be attributed in large part, to the combination and sharing of individual ideas and talents from thousands of people around the world. If it were not for this collective effort, the Internet and the access to it that we have become so dependant on would not exist today. Imagine for an instance what life would be like without the Internet. You would probably feel more or less confused and lost without even realizing why. Think about it, to a lot of people the Internet has become their sole source for personal banking, investing, driving directions, Online education, tickets for entertainment events, hard to find items, health related resources, music, dating, Online gaming, shopping, and work/school research. These are just a few examples of the many uses that the Internet brings into our lives. As you can see, Internet access has become such a common requirement in our lives that without it we would literally be lost.

Joseph Muhvic is the chief editor for an Internet service provider’s directory where consumers can compare rates, features, and promotions for standard dial-up, high speed dial-up, and broadband Internet access. In addition, visitors have access to an ISP buyer’s guide, FAQ’s, consumer reviews, and user submitted ratings. For more information visit

Infertility is a common and often distressing problem affecting approximately 1 in 6 couples. Statistics confirm that the incidence of infertility is not actually increasing. More couples are, however, seeking help and advice as treatments become more readily available and effective. Having worked in the specialist area of infertility for fifteen years, I appreciate that many couples find a diagnosis of polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) confusing and difficult to understand.

PCOS is a highly variable and individual disorder which was first described by Drs. Stein and Leventhal in 1935. They identified a group of infertile women who had menstrual abnormalities and enlarged ovaries (now known as polycystic ovaries). They also described hirsutism and obesity amongst this group.

Not all women with polycystic ovaries however, will exhibit these features. Goldzieher J. W. and Green J. A. (1962) reported that in women with surgically proven polycystic ovaries, 20% had no menstrual irregularities, 50% were not obese and 31% were not hirsute. Polson et. al. (1988) confirmed these findings and reported that polycystic ovaries are found in 22% of the normal population i.e. women who had not sought treatment for menstrual disturbances, infertility or hirsutism.

PCOS may be classified using three main criteria:

1. Clinical presentation,

2. Biochemical characterisation and

3. Characterisation of ovarian abnormalities.

It is these three criteria which are important for the diagnosis and classification of PCOS.

Most women with PCOS have a history of normal menstrual age but develop irregular cycles after the menarche. It is clear therefore that some women presenting with infertility may have had physiological difficulties in their teenage years, and may have foreseen the impact that this would have on their reproductive health in the future. Women with PCOS often have excessive hair growth and may be overweight. Yen (1980) noted that more than 80% of women with PCOS were obese prior to the onset of puberty. Although obesity is frequently associated with this condition it is unclear whether it is an intrinsic component or a predisposing state as weight loss is frequently associated with the correction of hormonal abnormalities and the re-establishment of regular ovulation.

As there is a high prevalence of PCOS in families of affected individuals, the syndrome may have a genetic component (Hauge et. al., 1988). Hypertension, diabetes, insulin resistance and obesity occur more often in families of PCOS women, whilst endocrine abnormalities and disturbed testicular function have been described in male family members. A recent study of familial PCOS has identified premature balding in male relatives as the male phenotye of PCOS.

Biochemical assessment of women with PCOS will now be discussed and involves assessing hormonal levels in the blood stream. At the time of birth a woman has between 200,000 and 400,000 primordial follicles within each ovary. As a consequence of a cyclic release of hormones the menstrual cycle occurs, a primordial follicle will mature during each cycle and a mature oocyte will be released. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Leutenising hormone (LH) are Gonadotrophic hormones released by the anterior pituitary gland which act directly on the ovary.

These hormones convert pre-antral follicles to antral or Graafian follicles and each one appears to exert its effects at different locations within the follicle. The granulosa cells of the follicles bind FSH whereas only the cells of the theca interna bind LH. Proliferation of the granulosa and thecal cells cause an increase in follicular size.

During this phase of growth the follicle will increase its synthesis of androgens from acetate and cholesterol and this conversion is greatly stimulated by LH As the follicle continues to increase In size the synthesis of oestrogen’s increases and the largest more advanced follicle releases steroids into the circulation. These steroids feedback negatively to the pituitary and this leads to a progressive reduction in circulating FSH and therefore limits development of further follicles.
Oestrogen, in conjunction with FSH plays a crucial role within the follicle towards the second phase of growth.

Together they stimulate the appearance of LH binding sites on the outer layer of the granlosa cells which previously lacked them. The Graafian follicle will die unless a brief surge of high levels of gonadotrophin coincides with the appearance of these LH receptors. The surge of LH has two effects. Firstly, ovulation occurs and the oocyte is expelled from the follicle and secondly, it changes the whole endocrinology of the follicle, forming a corpus luteum after ovulation. The corpus luteum
then secretes progesterone and some oestrogens which will support a developing embryo.

Carole Mallinson is a healthcare professional with over 15 years experience
in the field of Female & male Infertility. Join her and get access to here range of medical niche products with full

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